Morality is our ability to learn the difference between right or wrong and understand how to make the right choices. As with other facets of development, morality doesn't form independently from the previous areas we have been discussing. Children's experiences at home, the environment around them, and their physical, cognitive, emotional, and social skills influence their developing sense of right vs. wrong.
Between the ages of 2 and 5, many children start to show morally-based behaviors and beliefs. For example, Tasha may see Juan take the blocks out of Tyler's hands and say, "Juan! You're gonna get in trouble!" At this point, many young children also start to show empathy-based guilt when they break the rules. For example, if Juan from the above example sees Tyler cry because his blocks were stolen, Juan might start feeling somewhat bad that he hurt Tyler's feelings. As a younger child, however, Juan would feel badly only if he was punished for taking the blocks rather than making someone else sad.
According to Piaget, children between the ages of 5 and 10 see the world through a Heteronomous Morality. In other words, children think that authority figures such as parents and teachers have rules that young people must follow absolutely. Rules are thought of as real, unchangeable guidelines rather than evolving, negotiable, or situational. As they grow older, develop more abstract thinking, and become less self-focused, children become capable of forming more flexible rules and applying them selectively for the sake of shared objectives and a desire to co-operate.
Developmental psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg built on Piaget's work to create his theory of the Stages of Moral Understanding. According to Kohlberg, young children at this age base their morality on a punishment and obedience orientation. Much like Piaget, Kohlberg believed that young children behave morally because they fear authority and try to avoid punishment. In other words, little kids follow the rules because they don't want to get in trouble. It's too much to expect preschool-aged children to automatically "do the right thing". However, most young children can understand the difference between "good" and "bad" behavior, and this understanding provides the basis for more complicated moral thinking in the future.
Contemporary research has provided us with additional information about how young children understand morals. Children between the ages 5 and 6 typically think in terms of distributive justice, or the idea that material goods or "stuff" should be fairly shared. In other words, everyone should get his or her exact "fair share." For example, Sally may think that it's only fair if each child gets exactly 2 cookies and the same amount of milk in their glass. Other factors, such as need or effort, are not considered. Sally wouldn't think that Susie should get an additional cookie because her lunch fell on the floor. By age 6 or 7, children begin to consider what people have earned or worked for when thinking about distributive justice. Children can also reason that some people should get more because they worked harder. For example, Jane begins to understand that Jill should earn a bigger prize because she sold more Girl Scout cookies.
Piaget’s Theory of Moral Development
Moral development involves children learning how to tell the difference between right and wrong; to use this knowledge to arrive at appropriate decisions when faced with complicated choices; and to have the strength and independence to act in accordance with that right decision (to "do the right thing") despite the fact that it may not be a convenient thing to do. As with other components of development, morality is shaped by multiple factors. Children's interpersonal experiences with family, peers, and other adults, as well as their maturing physical, cognitive, emotional and social skills combine to influence moral development.
Piaget's Theory of Moral Development
According to Piaget's original formulation, children between the ages of 5 and 10 years see the world through the lens of a "heteronomous" (other-directed) morality. In this moral understanding, rules handed down by authority figures (such as parents, teachers and government leaders) are seen as absolute and unbreakable. Basically, children accept that authority figures have godlike powers, and are able to make rules that last forever, do not change, and must be followed. Children's reasoning regarding why these rules should be followed is generally based squarely upon their appreciation of consequences associated with breaking the rules. As breaking the rules tends to lead to negative personal consequences, most children follow the rules as a way to avoid being punished.
Children's appreciation of morality changes towards the end of middle childhood as a result of their recently developed ability to view situations from other people's perspectives. As children develop the ability to put themselves into someone else's shoes, their appreciation of morality becomes more autonomous (self-directed) and less black and white and absolutist in nature. Piaget called this expanded appreciation a "morality of cooperation". Starting at about age 10 or 11 and continuing through adolescence, children will have generally begun to view moral rules as socially-agreed upon guidelines designed to benefit the group. Children using this frame of reference still feel that it is important to follow rules, but these rules are viewed as complex, somewhat negotiable guidelines that are meant to improve everyone's lives. Children realize that making choices about following the rules should be based on something more than fear of negative personal consequences or desire for individual gain. Decisions affect everyone; and can benefit and/or hurt everyone.
Hohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development
The developmental psychologist Lawrence Kohlberg expanded and refined Piaget's earlier work resulting in the development of his well known stage theory of children's moral development. Kohlberg's moral theory is summarized in our Overview of Child Development, which may make sense to review at this time.
Pre-conventional Moral Reasoning
According to Kohlberg, children early in their middle childhood stage of development will typically display “Pre-conventional" moral reasoning. Children displaying pre-conventional moral reasoning have internalized basic culturally prescribed rules governing right and wrong behavior. For instance, they will appreciate that it is considered immoral to steal from others; that you must earn or be given things and not simply take them. Children will tend to live in accordance with these rules but primarily for selfish reasons, as a way of avoiding punishment and obtaining praise for themselves. At this point in time, they will appreciate their ability to make different kinds of choices, and also the reality of consequences associated with those choices. They realize that morally good behaviors attract praise and positive regard from peers and adults, while morally bad choices bring about unpleasant consequences and negative regard. They act accordingly, in a hedonistic manner so as to maximize their personal pleasant consequences.
Ideal Reciprocity
Later on in middle childhood, approximately between ages 10 and 12, children begin to show a dawning appreciation of "ideal reciprocity", which is a method for determining what is "fair" based on an appreciation of equality between relationship partners, and a desire to treat others well because ideally, they would similarly want to treat you that well too. People are more familiar with the idea of ideal reciprocity when it is phrased as the "golden rule" (e.g., "Do unto others as you would have done unto you"). Using ideal reciprocity, older children start to make moral decisions based more on how they would like others to treat them if the tables were turned, than based on what they can gain for themselves.
As children think about how rules are negotiated, and how they can benefit other people, they begin to understand and appreciate that there are different types or categories of rules, some of which are more negotiable than others.
Moral rules involve the most basic and socially strict guidelines and societal prohibitions that may never be broken. An example of a moral rule is the basic prohibition against murder and unprovoked assault. It is never okay to harm another person in a physical manner unless in self-defense.
Social Mores or Conventions are moral beliefs that change across social contexts and social groups. These rules are more strictly enforced in some places, and less strictly enforced in others. The idea that it is a sin to disobey one's parents is an example of a social more. In some families, this rule is taken very seriously indeed, while in other families, it is considered to be a guideline at best with many exemptions present.
Finally, Personal Choices involve rules that do not have fixed socially prescribed answers at all, but instead are left up to personal preference. An example of a personal choice might be one family's ritual of having a pizza dinner on Friday nights. At an earlier stage of their development, children might mistake a personal choice for a moral imperative, but by middle childhood, such choices will be recognized for what they are.